Claims of Fact: •Claims of fact entail the hazard that the factual map is constantly being redrawn. New data could always force us to reconsider our conclusions. •Claims of fact are often qualified by such terms as generally, probably, or as a rule. •To be valid, claims of fact must include sufficient and appropriate data. •Claims of fact must rely upon reliable authorities or they are worthless. Especially in the age of the Internet, teachers must explain that a source's reliability is often ambiguous and debatable. •Claims of fact must recognize the difference between facts and inferences.

Defending a Claim of Fact: 1. Be sure that the claim is clearly stated. 2. Define terms that may be controversial or ambiguous. 3. Make sure that your evidence is sufficient, accurate, recent, typical, and comes from reliable authorities. 4. Make clear when conclusions are inferences or interpretations, not facts. 5. Arrange your evidence in order to emphasize what is most important.

Examples of Claims of Fact (Possible Research Paper Topics) •The possibility of an asteroid or meteor hitting Earth is great enough that the Federal government should be finding plans to prevent it. •Generally, public secondary schools in America are not adequately preparing students for college. •The death penalty as used in the United States is ineffective and impractical.

Claims of Value: •Claims of value make a judgment. •Claims of value express disapproval and/or approval. •Claims of value attempt to prove that some action, belief, or condition is right or wrong, good or bad, etc. •Some claims of value are simply expressions of taste, preferences, and prejudices. •Many claims of value however, can be defended or attacked on the basis of standards. You have to arrive at reasonable standards that reasonable readers will accept.

Defending a Claim of Value: 1. Make clear that the values or principles you are defending should have priority on a scale of values over competing values or principles others might defend. 2. Suggest that adherence to the values you are defending will bring about good results. 3. Since values are abstract, you should use real-world examples and illustrations to clarify meanings and make distinctions. 4. It is highly persuasive to use the testimony of others to prove that knowledgeable or highly regarded people share your values.

Examples of Claims of Value (Possible Research Paper Topics) •The death penalty as applied in the United States is immoral. •The use of civil disobedience during the Civil Rights struggle was reasonable, moral, and necessary. •Fetal tissue research is wrong. •Opera is not as entertaining as musical comedy.

Claims of Policy: •Claims of policy argue that certain conditions should exist. •Claims of policy advocate adoption of policies or courses of action because problems have arisen that call for solutions. •Almost always "should" or "ought to" or "must" are included in the claim.

Defending Claims of Policy: 1. When you are defending a claim of policy, you must make your proposal clear. Terms should be precisely defined. 2. When you are defending a claim of policy, if necessary, establish that there is a need for change. 3. When you are defending a claim of policy, consider the opposing arguments. You may want to state them in a brief paragraph in order to answer them in the body of your argument. 4. When you are defending a claim of policy, devote the major part of your research paper to proving your proposal is an answer to the opposing arguments. 5. Support your proposal with solid data, but don't neglect moral and/or common sense reasons, which may be even more persuasive.

Examples of Claims of Policy (Possible Research Paper Topics) •The private ownership of automatic and semi-automatic weapons in the United States should be banned. •America should rapidly move toward normalizing diplomatic and trade relations with Cuba. •Fetal tissue research should not be funded by the United States government. •"Recovered memory" should be disallowed as evidence in American courts.